LIGHTING LAMPS


A Lamp, commonly called a 'light bulb', is the removable and replaceable portion of a light fixture which converts electrical energy to visible light. 

There are several types of lighting lamps.  Common characteristics used to evaluate lamp quality include efficacy measured in lumens per watt, typical lamp life measured in hours, cost of replacement lamps and Color Rendering Index on a scale of 0 to 100. 
Lighting or illumination is the application of light to achieve some aesthetic or practical effect. Proper lighting can enhance task performance or aesthetics, while there can be energy wastage and adverse health effects if the lighting is poorly designed. Lighting is done with the help of lighting fixtures and lighting lamps. Lighting Fixtures are electrical devices used to create light.

KITCHENS | COUNTERTOP MATERIALS

A Kitchen countertop usually refers to a horizontal worksurface in kitchens and food preparation areas. It is  installed above and supported by cabinets.When installed in a kitchen, countertops are usually about 24inches (600 mm) from front to back and are designed to slightly-overhang standard kitchen base cabinets. This allows one to conveniently reach objects at the back of the countertop. 

The face of the countertop may be decorated in ways ranging from plain to very elaborate. The countertop may be cut to accommodate sinks, stoves, ranges, and cooktops, or other accessories such as drain boards.

KITCHEN COUNTERTOP OPTIONS:

The Kitchen countertop needs to be extremely hard-wearing, sturdy and add to the beauty of the kitchen. There are several different types of materials available for Kitchen countertops and it can be very confusing for you, to make the right choice. As an Architect, I have listed the 10 best materials that I would recommend, along with their unique advantages and disadvantages, so that you can make the right choice when you do  up your Kitchen.

1. GRANITE: 
It is an igneous rock having crystals or grains of visible size and consists mainly of quartz, feldspar and mica or other coloured minerals.  It is the second hardest material after diamonds. Granite is one of the best options for Kitchen counter-top material as it is very durable, long-lasting and elegant in appearance.
Advantages: 
  • Holds up to heat; 
  • Comes in a range of almost 3000 colors; 
  • Looks beautiful, permanent and substantial; 
  • Easy to clean because it is as smooth as glass; 
  • Will last a lifetime;
  • Second highest hardness rating after diamonds; 
  • Resistant to scratches; 
  • Is waterproof and prevents the growth of fungus and bacteria;
  • Adds a high value to home buyers.
Disadavantages: 
  • Expensive, but becoming more affordable and granite tiles are considerably cheaper; 
  • Requires some maintenance - needs annual sealing; 
  • Some stones absorbs stains if not sealed; 
  • Knives can become dull if you cut on it; 
  • Can crack if stressed or improperly installed.
  • Replacement of a broken part will be difficult as each piece has a unique colouration and patterns.
2. ENGINEERED STONE
Engineered stone is composed of 95% quartz particles and 5% polymer resins. Engineered stone has all the advantages of granite but is easier to maintain, less porous and more scratch resistant than natural quartz surfaces.
Advantages:
  • Enginneered stone is available in a wide range of colours and patterns;
  • It can be customised for your kitchen as it is a flexible material;
  • It is quite durable and can last for decades before you have to replace it;
  • It is scratch resistant but can knives wil be dullened if used on it;
  • It can withstand heat from hot objects;
  • It has a non-porous surface which is resistant to stains, acid and fungus and bacterial growth;
  • It is easy to maintain and care and does not need the periodic sealing required for natural stone.
Disadvantages:
  • It is expensive, sometimes even more than Granite.
  • It can be installed only with professional help;
  • An engineered stone countertop does not look natural;
  • The seams are usually visible along the front edge beacuse the stone is laid by the slab.
3.  SOLID SURFACE:  
Solid surface countertops get their name from the fact that they are solid throughout the entire thickness. Solid surfaces make use of heavy-duty plastic sheets (acrylic, polyester, or a combination of the two) that are laminated  onto a wood/plywood substrate. The countertops are very versatile and can be joined, shaped and finished to your specifications. Solid surface countertops are quite popular because of the wide range of colours and patterns, their simple yet stylish look, smooth feel and low maintenance.
Advantages:
  • Solid surfaces are quite durable;
  • They can be custom-made to any shape and size;
  • They are mostly non-porous and hence stain resistant and prevent the growth of fungus and bacteria;
  • Solid countertops are available in a wide range of colors and patterns;
  • Since they are usually installed as a single integrated piece, they do not have seams;
  • They are easy to maintain and can easily be repaired.
Disadvantages:
  • They are vulnerable to hot pans as the heat can permanently damage the surface; 
  • They can crack below temperatures of 5 degrees celcius;
  • They are reasonably expensive.
4. CERAMIC TILE:
Ceramic tiles are made from pressed clay and fired at high temperatures to give the tile it’s hardness and it's matte finish. Some ceramic tiles may have a glaze of metallic oxides, which gives it an iridescent colour effect. They are a good choice for countertops for the average home because they are inexpensive, easy theat resistant and available in a wide range of colours
Advantages:
  • Ceramic tiles are inexpensive and much more affordable than natural stone like granite and marble.
  • They are quite durable and can withstand more impact than solid and laminate countertops.
  • They can withstand heat;
  • They are easy to clean;
  • They are available in a wide range colours, textures and design.
Disadvantages:
  • Ceramic tiles can easily chip or crack under hard impact and extreme temeperatures;
  • The counter surface is uneven and not smooth because of the tiles and grout joints between;
  • The grout joints can easily stain and are not easy to maintain;
  • Tiles can be custom designed, but are very expensive.
5. LAMINATES:
Laminate counter tops are made out of plastic coated synthetics bonded to a bottom substrate. There are two types:
Postformed: Also referred to as "plastic laminate countertop", it is formed by bonding decorative papers and resins through high heat and pressure to the bottom substrate, a wood product.

Self/Wood-edge plastic laminate countertop: Here, the substrate for the countertop is made of MDF or particle board and laminate sheets are glued to it. The laminate is then finished on the edges. This method of laminating can't reproduce the curved contours of post-formed countertops. Laminate countertops are popular because they are inexpensive, easy to clean, hygienic and available in a wide range of colours and designs.
Advantages:
  • Laminates are available in the widest range of colours, patterns and textures;
  • A laminate countertop is easy to clean;
  • It does not harbor the growth of mold, mildew, bacteria, and other microorganisms.
  • It is affordable compared to other materials. 
  • However, end finishing and front edge choices can be expensive.
Disadvantages:
  • A laminate countertop is susceptible to scratching, chipping, cuts, and breakage especially along its edges. 
  • It cannot resist heat and burns and can crack when exposed to heat;
  • A damaged laminate countertop cannot be repaired.
  • Laminates are not that durable as they cannot withstand cracks, scratches, heat and chipping.
6. WOODEN COUNTERTOPS:
Hardwoods such as maple and oak are most often used for wooden  countertops. The wood planks are arranged in a variety of designs like Butcher's Block, Joined Planks or Single Wide Stave. Wood is considered to be the most eco-friendly option for a kitchen countertop, as wood is a renewable resource.
Advantages:
  • Wood countertops can fit well into almost all kitchen designs - modern, sleek, and stylish, or roughed out for a rustic country theme;
  • They are very easy to install;
  • Wood has a natural mechanism that prevents the growth and buildup of bacteria;
  • Wood is easy to clean as it is smooth;
  • Wooden counters can be sanded to remove scratches and resealed.
  • Wood comes in a variety of colours, finishes and types of wood.
Disadvantages:
  • Wood can easily get damaged by impact, moisture, heat, and cold. It needs regular refinishing, cleaning with mineral oil, sanding and buffing;
  • Wood can easily get burnt and is a fire hazard
  • Wood countertops last about four to eight years at most, compared to stone countertops, which can last for decades.  This is beacause wood naturally oxidizes with age.
7. STAINLESS STEEL COUNTERS:
Stainless steel countertops are kitchen countertops made of stainless steel. Also known as corrosion resistant steel, stainless steel is a metal alloy that contains around 10% chromium which gives it its stainless look. For a really contemporary and industrial look for your kitchen, stainless steel is a good choice.
Advantages:
  • It is durable and is highly heat resistant;
  • It does not crack;
  • It is non-porous and hence, resistant to stains and corrosion, is waterproof and easy-to-clean;
  • Stainless steel is flexible which enables it to be installed in all kinds of unique spaces;
  • It is easy to install and is generally installed as one solid piece;
  • It does not have grouts or joints which trap food, grease, dirt;
  • It adds to the appearance of the kitchen by giving it a sleek and modern look; 
  • Stainless steel gently reflects light, which creates the illusion of a larger kitchen space;
  • Stainless steel sheets come in a variety of finishes, including quilted, non-directional, checkerboard, and a variety of diagonal designs.
Disadvantages:
  • It often shows scratches and can dent;
  • It can be quite noisy if not stabilized properly with a strong backing;
  • Food, grease and fingerprints all show very clearly, necessitating continual cleaning.
  • It is quite expensive.
8. SOAPSTONE COUNTERS:
Soapstone is a metamorphic rock that is made of talc, dolomite, magnesite, and chlorite. Talc gives soapstone a soft and soap-like texture. Soapstone is generally dark gray in color and is quite popular as a countertop  and sink material because it is durable, heat resistant and stain proof.
Advantages: 
  • It has a rich, deep, natural colour and a very smooth feel;
  • Soapstone is quite durable and does not crack easily; 
  • Soapstone is stain resistant to a large extent; 
  • Soapstone distributes the heat of hot pans evenly without causing burn marks.
Disadvantages:
  • Soapstone requires scheduled maintenance as it can crack and darken over time;
  • It needs to be coated with mineral oil several times a year to prevent discoloration and cracking;
  • Soapstone countertops may be difficult to replace if there are damages or cracks on the surface because each slab has its own unique pattern and shade;
9. MARBLE:  
Marble is a metamorphic rock composed largely of calcite or dolomite available in different colors that result from differences in mineral content. It can be highly polished to create a very shiny and elegant surface. Marble requires constant maintenance, as it easily stains. However, some new sealers retard staining. But it does give a luxurious look.
Advantages:
  • Marble is a strong and durable material that can last for decades if properly cared for;
  • It does not crack or break easily;
  • It does not catch fire or burn, but if very hot pots are placed on it,  the heat may change the colour of the marble permanently;
  • It looks beautiful and luxurious and can add elegance to the kitchen.
Disadvantages:
  • It is very expensive, though lower quality ones and marble tiles are cheaper;
  • It is quite porous and hence stains easily unless professionally sealed;
  • It can scratch;
  • It may need resealing periodically.
10. CONCRETE COUNTERS
If you have countertops in unusual shapes, concrete may be a good choice, as they're often cast right in your kitchen. Concrete  countertops are structurally sound and also provide a decorative finish that resembles polished stone but at a lesser cost.
Advantages:
  • Concrete is heat resistant and will not burn if hot pots are placed on it.
  • It can be colour-tinted and looks exotic and unusual;
  • It is quite durable and can last for around 20 years;
  • Concrete is quite strong and can resist chipping, breaking and scratches;
  • Concrete is the best option for unusual shaped counters, since it is cast at site.
Disadvantages:
  • It can  be expensive due to custom work;
  • It is porous but can be sealed.
  • Cracking is possible, but nowadays, new treatments eliminate cracking.


This post was about the 10 best materials for Kitchen Countertops. The vertical extension to a Kitchen countertop which protects the wall behind, from unintended splashes of water, oil and spills is called a Kitchen backsplash. Read more:

    KITCHENS | BACKSPLASH MATERIALS

    A Kitchen backsplash is a vertical extension to a kitchen counter which protects the wall from unintended splashes of water, oil and food. It also prevents spilled liquids from leaking behind the kitchen cabinets. 

    A distinctive backsplash can also help a kitchen look great as it gives  the room a finished quality.A backsplash should be made of an easy-to-clean material, such as tiles, granite, Corian, Silestone, stainless steel, etc. As a rule, though, the same material used to make the counter is also used to make the backsplash.

    KITCHEN BACKSPLASH OPTIONS:

    While selecting a backsplash it is important to match it with the permanent fixtures in your kitchen, but not the appliances, since they will change over time. The most popular materials for kitchen backsplashes are ceramic or porcelain tiles, natural stone, glass, stainless steel or metal tiles. As an Architect I have recommended the 10 best materials for kitchen backsplashes along with their advantages and disadvantages, so that you can decide what you want when you do up your kitchen.

    1. CERAMIC TILES:
      Ceramic tiles are undoubtedly the most versatile backsplash material by virtue of their sheer variety in colour, texture, shape, and size. I suggest that you keep it simple by choosing the same tile for your kitchen backsplash as you've chosen for the floor - but in a smaller size. You can have custom painted tiles to match any theme or design, just to add that dash of colour.

    Advantages:
    • Budget-minded homeowners find ceramic tiles, considerably more affordable;
    • Glazed tiles are tough, durable, and easy to wipe off;
    • Wide variety of patterns, textures and designs available;
    • For that exclusive look, you can opt for specially hand-painted tiles;
    • When a kitchen mishap chips or breaks a tile or two, it's much easier and cheaper to replace the affected tiles than it would be for a slab of granite.
    Disadvantages:
    • Too many joints and grout in a ceramic backsplash, which  trap grease and dirt.
    • Ceramic tiles are not as smooth as steel or glass.
    • Since every single tile is hand-set, it is more labour-intensive and the final appearance depends on the skill of the layer.
    • Unglazed, porous tile in areas near the sink or stove absorb liquids and grime and are impossible to clean.
    2.  STAINLESS STEEL:  Stainless steel backsplash which was preferred for long in restaurant kitchens is becoming popular in home kitchens because it can give your kitchen a modern streamlined look and is able to blend in well with stainless steel kitchen appliances like the stove, refrigerator, taps and dishwasher. Also it is sanitary.

    Advantages:
    • It is resistant to stains and corrosion;
    • It is non-porous, waterproof and easy-to-clean;
    • It is durable and is highly heat resistant;
    • It is crack resistant;
    • Stainless steel is flexible which enables it to be installed in all kinds of unique spaces.
    • It is easy to install and is generally installed as one solid piece;
    • It does not have grouts or joints which trap food, grease, dirt;
    • It adds to the appearance of the kitchen by giving it a sleek and modern look;
    • Stainless gently reflects light, which creates the illusion of a larger kitchen space;
    • These sheets come in a variety of finishes, including quilted, non-directional, checkerboard, and a variety of diagonal designs.
    Disadvantages:
    • It often shows scratches;
    • It can be dented;
    • It can be quite noisy if not stabilized properly with a strong backing;
    • Food, grease and fingerprints all show very clearly, necessitating continual cleaning.
    3.  METAL TILES:  Kitchens feature many metals besides steel -- brass, copper, pewter, tin, and aluminum, to name a few. So metal backsplash is a good choice, especially because it is non-porous, water-proof and  reflective. However before you go in for  a long-term investment, think about the inherent advantages and disadvantages of the metals.

    Advantages:
    • Brass and copper cast a nice glow;
    • Antique embossed tin looks great;
    • They are non-porous;
    • They are durable and waterproof;
    • Metals gently reflect light, which creates the illusion of a larger kitchen space.
    Disadvantages:
    • Quite a chore to keep them clean;
    • All metal backsplashes except stainless steel, are high-maintenance;
    • They often shows scratches;
    • They can be dented;
    • They can be quite noisy if not stabilized properly with a strong backing;
    • Food, grease and fingerprints all show very clearly, necessitating continual cleaning.
    4.  GLASS BLOCKS:  A very recent backsplash option that has garnered a lot of interest from designers and home owners is Glass blocks or solid-glass-sheet backsplashes. These are usually part of an exterior wall and let in natural light. Just like conventional windows, glassblock units must be set into adequately framed openings with load-bearing headers.

    Advantages:
    • In modern kitchens, it offers a sleek backdrop to the counters, cabinets and appliances;
    • It looks good in contrast with stainless steel;
    • It lets in a lot of light;
    • It brings the outdoors inside.
    Disadvantages:
    • It is more difficult to assemble and if the workmanship is not neat, it can spoil the interiors;
    • It is expensive to use glass or acrylic block since it requires framing and lintels.
    5.  GLASS TILES:  A new design trend in kitchen backsplashes is glass which can add beauty to a kitchen and make it appear brighter. Textured glass tiles, frosted glass, back-painted glass, coloured glass are some of the  options availablet. The panels may be glued to the wall or mounted with brackets. With clear and translucent panels it's especially important to ensure that no unsightly debris finds its way between the glass and the wall.

    Advantages:
    • Glass tiles are not porous, so they resist mold, mildew and staining.
    • Glass reflects light, so they make the area look brighter and larger.
    • Glass tiles are more eco-friendly as it takes half the energy to produce a glass tile compared to a ceramic tile. You can also find glass tiles made of recycled glass;
    • A glass backsplash is also non-flammable;
    • Clear glass can be used to protect walls made of materials that should be protected from moisture and food splatters, e.g. antique bricks, vintage wood, or delicate wallpaper.

     Glass tiles on the backsplash alternate between glossy and etched.
    Disadvantages:
    • Glass tiles are more expensive than ceramic.
    • They can scratch, and the scratches may show.
    • Glass tiles are difficult to cut;
    • Glass can break and is unsuitable if there are young children.
    6.  GRANITE:  Inspite of the cost, Granite is becoming popular for kitchen backsplashes along with countertops, because of its advantages.

    Advantages:
    • It's diamond-like hardness; 
    • It is impervious to extreme heat, ultraviolet light, acids and abrasions. 
    • It adds elegance to a kitchen.
    • It is easy to clean and maintain.
    • It retains its shine and actually shines more with repeated cleaning.
     Disadvantages:
    • It is the only stone that has virtually no drawbacks, except that it is somewhat porous and requires annual or frequent maintenance with a penetrating sealer to deter stains.
    7.  MARBLE: Like Granite, Marble also adds elegance to a kitchen, and is quite popular as a kitchen backsplash. However it is not used much for kitchen countertops because it stains and is porous.

    Advantages: 
    • It gives a luxurious touch to the kitchen;
    • Since it is available in a wide range of lighter shades, it makes the kitchen look brighter.
    • It is easy to clean.
    • With repeted cleaning, it shines and sparkles.
     Disadvantages:
    • It is soft and porous, requiring regular waxing and sealing. 
    • It takes stains like turmeric;
    • It is not very heat resistant;
    • It gets discoloured when exposed to citric acids (lime and lemon juices).
    • While not ideal as countertop material, it is fine for backsplashes if not located near a heat source.
    8.  ENGINEERED STONE: with 94% quartz and 6% high-performance polymers is suitable for a wide range of domestic, commercial and industrial applications.,
    Advantages:
    • Engineered stone is extremely durable and resistant to fractures and any kind of damage. If taken care of properly, an engineered stone backsplash can last for decades.
    • It is more flexible and easier to install, handle, and maintain. 
    • An engineered stone backsplash is resistant to scratches from pointed objects like stainless steel knives, mugs, ceramic pots, etc. 
    • Engineered stone can resist heat from hot surfaces like plates and pots.
    • An engineered stone backsplash is easy to maintain and clean. 
    • Its non-porous surface makes its high-polished luster last for years. Because of the non-porous surface, it does not harbor the growth of mold, mildew, and bacteria and can also resist stains caused by oil, wine, acids, soda, and common household cleaning products. 
    • Unlike granite, it does not need sealing. 
    • Engineered stone has a wide variety of colors and patterns to choose from. Some patterns imitate the real thing, while others come in pastel colors.
    Disadvantages:
    • An engineered stone backsplash does not look natural in terms of color, pattern variations, aesthetic beauty.
    • Because an engineered stone countertop is usually by the slab, the seams can be visible. 
    9.  SLATE:Slate is a fine-grained metamorphic rock that is derived from sediments of clay and fine silt. Being unique in appearance, its assured that no two countertops will be the same. Also, the character and permanence of slate allows it to fit into either a traditional design or a modern kitchen scheme.

    Advantages:
    • Slate is durable and strong.
    • Slate has low-porosity and hence has a low absorption rate.
    • It does not take stains.
    • It is heat resistant. 
    • A slate backsplash is easy to install and almost maintenance free, once in place. 
    • Slate is usually available in earthy tones such as greys, reds, and greens.
    Disadvantages:
    • The colours are generally light to dark gray with red, green, and purple stones mixed in. Many people feel restricted by the colour choice.
    • Slate is heavy like other stones and so requires special tools and materials for installation.
    10.  SOAPSTONE: Soapstone is a metamorphosed stone that feels "soapy". It is ideal for a backsplash  because of it's advantages:

    Advantages: 
    • Just like granite and marble, soapstone is durable and does not crack easily. 
    • Soapstone does not stain easily and does not discolor when acidic substances like wine and vinegar are accidentally spilled on it. 
    • Soapstone is an excellent retainer of heat - The heat is evenly distributed throughout the surface.
    • It is non-porous and smooth.
    • Soapstone comes in various colors and textures that gives you the freedom to choose the style you want.
     Disadvantages:
    • Because it is made of natural materials, soapstone backsplash requires scheduled maintenance.
    • Soapstone needs to be coated with mineral oil several times a year to prevent discoloration and cracking.
    • Soapstone backsplash may be difficult to replace if there are damages or cracks on the surface. Since each slab has its own unique pattern and shade, it may be a bit difficult to find a slab that would match the ones on the countertop.
    • Soapstone can scratch, so while it isn’t commonly used for countertops, it can make a lovely backsplash.
    • Similarly, regular limestone has limited countertop use, but may be considered for backsplashes.
    Now that you have read about the advantages and disadvantages of the different backsplash materials, it becomes easier for you to finalise the material,  that best suits your house. Read about the best Kitchen Countertop materials, here:




    LAMPS | LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

    A light-emitting-diode (LED) is a semiconductor diode that emits light when an electric current is applied in the forward direction of the device, from the anode to the cathode. LEDs are widely used as indicator lights on electronic devices and increasingly in higher power applications such as flashlights and area lighting. 

    An LED is usually a small (less than 1 mm) light source. The color of the emitted light depends on the composition and condition of the semiconducting material used, and can be infrared, visible, or ultraviolet.

    ADVANTAGES-
    • Efficiency: LEDs produce more light per watt, at close to 100 lumens per watt; this is useful in battery powered or energy-saving devices.
    • Colour: LEDs can emit light of an intended colour without the use of colour filters that traditional lighting methods require. This is more efficient and can lower initial costs.
    • On/Off time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical indicator LED will achieve full brightness in microseconds.
    • Cycling: LEDs are ideal for use in applications that are subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike fluorescent lamps that burn out more quickly when cycled frequently, Halide lamps that require a long time before restarting.
    • Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by modulation or lowering the forward current.
    • Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in the form of infra red that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted energy is dispersed as heat through the base of the LED.
    • Slow failure: LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, unlike the abrupt burn-out of incandescent bulbs.
    • Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates 35,000 to 50,000 hours of useful life.
    • Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid state components, are difficult to damage with external shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs which are fragile.
    • Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light, the light can be collimated and lensed to any angle. Incandescent and fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable manner.
    • Disposabilty: LEDs do not contain mercury and can be easily disposed.
    • Size: LEDs can be very small -just a cubic millimetre and can be packed into small spaces.
    DISADVANTAGES-
    • High price: LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an initial capital cost basis, than most conventional lighting technologies. The additional expense partially stems from the relatively low lumen output and the fact that technology is growing very rapidly and huge investments have been made in development with very little time to recover these costs.
    • Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature of the operating environment. Over-driving the LED in high ambient temperatures may result in overheating of the LED package, eventually leading to device failure. This is especially important when considering automotive, medical, and military applications where the device must operate over a large range of temperatures, and is required to have a low failure rate.
    • Voltage sensitivity: LEDs must be supplied with the voltage above the threshold and a current below the rating. This can involve series resistors or current-regulated power supplies.

    • Light quality: Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ significantly from the sun or an incandescent light. This can cause the color of objects to be perceived differently under cool-white LED illumination than under sunlight or incandescent sources. However, the color rendering properties of common fluorescent lamps are often inferior to what is now available in state-of-art white LEDs.
    • Blue Hazard: There is increasing concern that blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs are now capable of exceeding safe limits of the so-called blue-light hazard as defined in eye safety specifications.
    • Blue pollution: Because cool-white LEDs emit much more blue light than conventional outdoor light sources such as sodium lamps, the strong wavelength dependence of Rayleigh scattering means that cool-white LEDs can cause more light pollution than other light sources.
    USAGE:
    As a result of the new developments in LED technology, suddenly from being the humble indicator on the microwave, stereo or washing machine, they are everywhere - 
    • Lighting homes. 
    • In cinemas, discos, malls, 
    • For signage, traffic lights.
    • In torches, medical instruments, cellphones, watches etc.
    • For lighting buildings.
    • In giant TV screens. The list is endless.

    Because of the advantages, LEDs hold a theoretical promise that these devices could actually come close to achieving eternal life, converting each watt of electrical energy into pure white light - no infra-red, ultra-violet, no heat, no X-rays. The energy savings will be huge and 50 years on you will still be using the same LED!

    Since it is apparent that the LEDs are the future of lighting, huge investments have been made in the development of LED technology. And the result, is the 'Geobulb'.
     

    The GeoBulb is an LED bulb that has been created to replace the normal incandescent bulbs. It supposedly has a 30,000 hour lifespan (which is nearly 10 years), uses only 8w to produce the light of a 60w incandescent, gives out 40% less heat than a CFL and 89% less heat than an incandescent, contains no mercury and instantly lights up on turning it on.  This is indeed the future of lighting. Right now, it is priced high, but the prices are sure to come down with time.

    With the rapid progress made in LED technology, the flaws are sure to be corrected, and the LED bulb or LED fluorescent tubelight will replace all the existing incandescent bulbs and Fluorescent tubelights. 

    Read more about the different types of LIGHTING LAMPS here:

    LAMPS | SODIUM VAPOUR LAMPS

    Like in a Metal Halide lamp, the working principle of a Sodium Vapour lamp is that of a gas-discharge tube, but in this case, the discharge takes place through a tube with a small quantity of sodium-neon-argon (SOX lamp) or mercury-sodium amalgam (SON lamp).

    Unfortunately, it has very limited colour rendering properties, as it produces monochromatic deep yellow colour light only. Of the two versions, the SOX is more efficient, but the SON lamp has found better acceptance as it has slightly better colour rendition properties.

    ADVANTAGES-
    • Efficiency: Sodium Vapour Lamps are very efficient, turning one watt of power into a whopping 200lumens! Compare this with the 12 lumens per watt of an incandescent bulb, or the 60 lumens per watt of a CFL, or the 90 lumens per watt of FTL.
    • Life: They have a very long life of 20,000 hours, compared to the 1000 hours of an incandescent bulb.
    • Light Colour: The monochromatic deep yellow wavelength light produced by the sodium vapour lamp is the 'photopic' range- in which humans see best. Hence the vision even in foggy and dusty conditions is excellent in this light.
    DISADVANTAGES-
    • Colour rendering: The colour rendition properties are not comparable to the other lamps- the white SON lamp has a Ra value of 80 while the SOX has a Ra of just 20 which is way below that of an Incandescent (Ra -100).
    • Disposal: Like in all discharge lamps, the Sodium Vapour Lamps contain mercury and need to be disposed carefully.
    USAGE:
    • Road lighting: Due to the long life, efficient energy usage and excellent vision, the sodium vapour lamps are the ideal choice for road lighting. 
    • Monument illumination: They are also suitable for monument illumination, particularly those made of stone masonry of orange hue.
    • Indoor applications: Since these lamps produce monochromatic colour, they are unsuitable for indoor applications.
    • Eco-friendly: However they find continued patronage among environmentally sensitive users, due to their efficiency and long life.
    With advanced technology, new, hi-power LED street lighting is threatening to replace the existing Sodium Vapour lamps as it gives a nice white light and energy saving of over 50%.

    Read more about the different types of LIGHTING LAMPS here:







    LAMPS | METAL HALIDES

    Like the fluorescent tubelight and the CFLs, Metal Halide Lamps are also discharge tubes in which an electric arc is discharged through a mixture of gases- generally a combination of mercury vapour, argon and halides like iodides or bromides of different metals. 

    The main difference between a Metal Halide (MH) Lamp and a CFL is that the intensity of discharge in a MH Lamp is far higher and the arc length is far smaller so as to almost be considered a point. This allows manufacturers to design accurate optic trays, diffusers and lenses for a variety of applications.


    ADVANTAGES-
    • Colour rendering properties: Metal Halide lamps have excellent colour rendering properties, Ra - 85 to 96, and are comparable to Incandescent bulbs (Ra of 100) in this respect.
    • Efficiency: They are very efficient, producing from 60 to 115 lumens per watt depending on the type of Metal Halide.
    • Wattage range: They are available in a wide wattage range that starts at 20W and goes upto 2000W! This allows their use in every likely application segment.
    • Life: The lamp life is quite high in comparison to Incandescents at 9000 hours, but still much less than the 20,000 hours of Fluorescent Tube light and 50,000 hours of CFLs.
    DISADVANTAGES-
    • Initial cost: The initial cost of ownership is quite high: at Rs 1000 for a 35W lamp and Rs 1600 for the electronic ballast.
    • Control: They are not very easy to control and cannot be dimmed as of now.
    • Ignition time: They take a long time to ignite, almost 4 minutes and if switched off and on again, they take almost 6 minutes to re-ignite, as they have to first cool down.
    • Disposal: They contain mercury and issue of disposal should be addressed satisfactorily.
    USAGE:
    The advantages of Metal Halide lamps listed above make them an attractive option for applications in Interiors for retail, art, aquariums etc. as well as for exterior illumination of buildings, monuments and landscapes, street lighting and floodlighting of large arenas and sports venues.
    Due to the cost factor the Metal Halides still don't find use in households. Since they take a long time to ignite, they are unsuitable in places where rapid re-strike is required like in a factory where power supply is constantly switched between normal and generator supply.

    Metal Halides, like Fluorescent Tube Lights and CFL's are gas-discharge lamps, wherein electricity produces ultra-violet light that causes phosphor to fluoresce, thus producing light. Another popular gas-discharge lamp is the 'Sodium Vapour Lamp'. 

    Read more about the different types of LIGHTING LAMPS here:






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